Jainism

Jainism

Jainism is a Sramana tradition that originated in India and stands as one of the world’s oldest living religions. Unlike religions centered on a single prophet or divine revelation, Jainism is based on the teachings of Tirthankaras (Ford-Makers)—enlightened beings who achieved perfect knowledge and guide others across the stream of existence (the cycle of rebirth). The current era recognizes 24 Tirthankaras, of whom Rishabhanatha is traditionally considered the first, and Vardhamana Mahavira is the twenty-fourth and last.

While the tradition asserts great antiquity, its historical structure was solidified in the 6th century B.C. by Mahavira, concurrent with the rise of Buddhism and a period of intense intellectual debate in India. Jainism’s central tenets revolve around ethical discipline, especially non-violence (Ahimsa), non-absolutism (Anekantavada), and ascetic practices designed to liberate the soul from karmic bondage.

1. Birth and Life of Mahavira (540- 468 B.C.)

The life of Vardhamana Mahavira (the Great Hero) provides the foundational narrative for modern Jain practice.

• Nomenclature and Lineage: Born in 540 B.C. in Kundagrama (Vaishali, Bihar), Vardhamana was a member of the Kshatriya caste, specifically the Jnatrika clan. His father, Siddhartha, was a local chief, and his mother, Trishala, was a prominent figure, being the sister of the powerful Lichchhavi ruler Chetaka. This royal connection significantly helped in the initial spread of his teachings.
• Ascetic Quest: Though he lived as a householder and married Yashoda, at the age of 30, following the death of his parents, he renounced worldly life. He practiced rigorous asceticism for twelve years, engaging in extreme penance, fasting, and meditation, often without clothes or shelter.
• Kevala Jnana: At the age of 42, under a Sal tree on the bank of the Rijupalika river near the village of Jrimbhikagrama, he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience or perfect, absolute knowledge). Having conquered attachments and passions, he was henceforth known as Jina (Conqueror), and his followers as Jains.
• The Sangha: Mahavira organized his followers into a comprehensive monastic order (Sangha), which included both male and female monastics (monks and nuns) and male and female lay followers (Shravakas and Shravikas). This fourfold order (Chaturvarnya) was instrumental in the rapid spread of the doctrine.
• Nirvana: Mahavira continued preaching for thirty years until he attained Nirvana (liberation from the cycle of rebirth) at Pavapuri (Bihar) in 468 B.C.

2. Teachings of Mahavira

Jainism is fundamentally a doctrine of the soul (Jiva) and its liberation from matter (Ajiva). The universe is eternal, having no beginning or end, and is not created or governed by any supreme being.

The Three Jewels (Triratnas)

The ethical path leading to the purification of the soul is called the Triratnas, which must be observed simultaneously:

1. Samyak Darshana (Right Faith): Not blind faith, but a rational conviction and correct attitude towards the true nature of reality as taught by the Jinas.
2. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): Knowledge of the true and complete reality, free from doubt, and understood correctly.
3. Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): The practice of the five great vows (Mahavratas) by ascetics, or the twelve vows by lay followers, to stop the inflow of Karma.

The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)

These vows are mandatory for monks and nuns and form the bedrock of Jain ethics.

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): The supreme principle of Jainism. It entails not causing harm to any living being (Jiva) through thought, word, or deed. This is extended to protecting animals, plants, and even microscopic life (termed Jivdaya).
2. Satya (Truthfulness): To speak the truth, but also to speak what is pleasant and benevolent (i.e., truth must not cause injury).
3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Not to take anything unless it is freely given, extending to avoiding greed or deceitful practices in trade.
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy): Strict abstinence from all sexual pleasure. This vow was added by Mahavira to the four vows taught by Parshvanatha.
5. Aparigraha (Non-possession/Non-attachment): Renouncing all worldly attachments and possessions, as attachment leads to selfish actions that create Karma.

Philosophical Pillars

Concept	Definition	Significance
Anekantavada	Non-absolutism or the manifold-aspect theory.	Reality is perceived differently from different viewpoints; no single viewpoint is exhaustive. It encourages tolerance and open-mindedness.
Syadvada	Conditional Predication or the doctrine of ‘may be’.	The logical expression of Anekantavada. All judgment is relative, conditional, and tentative (expressed by using Syat or ‘maybe’).
Naya	Partial Knowledge or viewpoint.	The methods used to examine reality. A Naya provides only one of the seven possible modes of Syadvada judgment.
Karma	Subtle Matter that adheres to the soul.	Karma is not mere action, but a physical substance (Pudgala). It is the cause of bondage and the cycle of rebirth (Samsara).

3. Organisation and Sects of Jainism

The Jain Sangha established by Mahavira experienced a major schism around 300 B.C., leading to the formation of the two primary sects.

The Schism (c. 300 B.C.)

A severe famine lasting 12 years occurred in Magadha. This led to a split among the monks:

• Bhadrabahu’s Group: Led by the ascetic Bhadrabahu, a large group of monks migrated to South India (Karnataka) to avoid the famine. They maintained the strict, orthodox practice of nudity as prescribed by Mahavira.
• Sthulabhadra’s Group: Led by Sthulabhadra, the monks who remained in Magadha adopted white clothes out of necessity due to the changing social environment.

When the group returned from the South, differences in practice became permanent, leading to the split into the two sects outlined below:

Comparative Table of Jain Sects

Aspect	Digambara (Sky-clad)	Shvetambara (White-clad)
Dress Code	Monks follow complete nudity (rejecting all possessions).	Monks and nuns wear simple white clothes.
Possessions	Monks possess only two items: a peacock feather whisk (Picchi) and a water gourd (Kamandalu).	Monks are allowed to possess up to 14 items, including a begging bowl and staff.
Liberation (Moksha)	Believe that women cannot achieve Moksha; they must be reborn as men.	Believe that women can achieve Moksha.
Tirthankaras	Reject the idea that the 19th Tirthankara, Mallinatha, was female.	Accept that Mallinatha was female.
Mahavira’s Life	Believe Mahavira did not marry and led a strictly ascetic life from the beginning.	Believe Mahavira married Yashoda and renounced at age 30.
Geographical Base	Predominantly in Southern India (Karnataka, Maharashtra).	Predominantly in Western and Northern India (Gujarat, Rajasthan).

4. Literature of Jainism

Jain sacred texts, collectively known as the Agamas (meaning “precepts” or “scriptures”), were primarily composed in Prakrit, specifically Ardha-Magadhi, the vernacular language of the region where Mahavira preached.

The Jain Canon (Shvetambara Tradition)

The Digambaras do not accept the existing Agamas as genuine and believe the original texts were lost. The Shvetambara canon, codified through the councils, consists of:

• 12 Angas (Limbs): The main sacred texts containing the discourses of Mahavira. The first and most important is the Acharanga Sutra, which describes the monastic conduct.
• 12 Upangas (Subsidiary Limbs): Supplementary texts.
• 10 Prakirnakas (Miscellaneous Texts).
• 6 Chhedasutras (Texts on Discipline).
• 4 Mulasutras (Basic Texts): Includes the essential Kalpa Sutra (by Bhadrabahu), which contains the biographies of the Tirthankaras, particularly Mahavira.

Languages and Other Literary Contributions

Jains also made significant contributions to classical literature:

• Sanskrit: Used for later philosophical and commentarial works.
• Apabhramsha: Jains were key developers of this language, which bridged classical and modern Indian languages.
• Regional Languages: Jain scholars greatly enriched Kannada, Tamil, and Gujarati literature. For example, the three gems of ancient Kannada literature—Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna (the Kaviratna-traya)—were Jains.

5. Councils, Spread and Royal Patrons

Jainism spread without large-scale military or political patronage, primarily relying on the dedication of monks and the ethical practices of the lay community.

Jain Councils

The councils were crucial for the preservation and codification of the scattered oral traditions:

Council	Date	Location	Presiding Monk	Significance
First Council	c. 300 B.C.	Pataliputra (Bihar)	Sthulabhadra	Codification of the 12 Angas; led to the formal schism (Shvetambara vs. Digambara).
Second Council	c. 512 A.D.	Valabhi (Gujarat)	Devardhi Kshamasramana	Final compilation and written documentation of the Agamas; confirmed the Shvetambara canon.

Royal Patrons and Geographical Expansion

Jainism’s influence expanded successfully from its origins in Eastern India to become a pan-Indian religion, largely due to key political and economic alignments.

A. Early Patronage: Magadha and Kalinga

Mahavira’s teachings initially found favorable ground in the kingdom of Magadha, where kings like Bimbisara and his successor, Ajatashatru, were his contemporaries and offered patronage, although they also supported Buddhism. This early royal support ensured the faith’s survival during its formative years. The most significant early royal endorsement came from King Kharavela of Kalinga (modern Odisha) in the 1st century B.C. His Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri is a primary source detailing his devotion to Jainism, recording his acts of restoring Jain idols, constructing caves, and patronizing monks, demonstrating that Jainism was a strong force outside of Magadha centuries after Mahavira’s death.

B. The Mauryan Impact and the Southern Migration

The most pivotal figure in Jain expansion was Chandragupta Maurya (c. 3rd century B.C.), the founder of the Mauryan Empire. According to Jain tradition, he abdicated his throne, converted to Jainism, and followed the ascetic Bhadrabahu to South India during the 12-year famine in Magadha. This migration was critical: it established a strong Jain base in Karnataka and led directly to the geographical split that solidified the two main sects (Shvetambara and Digambara). Chandragupta is believed to have ended his life through the Jain practice of ritual fast unto death (Sallekhana) at Sravana Belgola, making it a permanent pilgrimage center.

C. Flourishing in South India

Following the Mauryan period, Jainism remained influential across various dynasties in the Deccan.

• The Gangas (350–1000 AD): The Ganga dynasty of Karnataka were devout patrons. Their patronage culminated in the creation of the Gomateshwara statue (Bahubali) at Sravana Belgola in 981 A.D. by their minister, Chavundaraya. This 57-foot monolithic structure remains a magnificent symbol of Digambara Jainism.
• Kadambas and Rashtrakutas: These Deccan dynasties also extended state support, enabling Jainism to integrate deeply into the socio-cultural fabric of Karnataka, where Jain monasteries (Basadis) became centers of learning and political influence.

D. Western India: The Mercantile Stronghold

Gujarat and Rajasthan became the most enduring and affluent strongholds of Jainism, a development driven less by kings and more by the wealthy merchant (Vaishya) community. The principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) discouraged followers from occupations involving agriculture (which harms insects) or warfare, making commerce and trade the ideal pursuit. This led to the community’s economic prosperity, which they channeled into massive endowments and temple construction, most famously:

• Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): Funded by Jain ministers and merchants, these temples are renowned for their intricate marble carving and stunning architectural beauty, built under the patronage of the Solankis (Chaulukya dynasty).
• Palitana (Gujarat): The Shatrunjaya Hills became one of the holiest sites for Shvetambaras, a testament to continuous patronage over centuries.

Beyond the Vows: Jain Contribution to Art and Architecture

Jainism inspired magnificent artistic and architectural achievements, often characterized by intricate carving and colossal statues.

• Colossal Statues: The most famous example is the Gomateshwara statue
  (Bahubali) at Sravana Belgola, Karnataka, built in the 10th century A.D. by the Ganga minister Chavundaraya. It is the world’s largest monolithic free-standing statue.
• Cave Temples: Early cave temples at Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Odisha, patronized by King Kharavela.
• Temple Complexes (Derasars):
  • Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): Constructed by the Solanki rulers, these temples are famous for their stunning, intricate marble carving.
  • Palitana (Shatrunjaya Hills, Gujarat): A major pilgrimage center, often described as a city of temples.

Jain art typically focuses on the Tirthankaras in meditative posture (Kayotsarga), promoting serenity and detachment. The architecture, patronized heavily by affluent lay traders, remains a testament to the enduring cultural influence of Jainism.